- Research
- Open Access
Intrusive thoughts and quality of life among men with prostate cancer before and three months after surgery
https://doi.org/10.1186/1477-7525-11-154
© Thorsteinsdottir et al.; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. 2013
Received: 8 March 2013
Accepted: 4 September 2013
Published: 11 September 2013
Abstract
Background
Sudden, unwelcome and repetitive thoughts about a traumatic event – intrusive thoughts – could relate to how men assess their quality of life after prostate-cancer diagnosis. We aimed to study the prevalence of intrusive thoughts about prostate cancer and their association with quality-of-life outcomes before and after radical prostatectomy.
Methods
During the first year of the LAPPRO-trial, 971 men scheduled for radical prostatectomy were prospectively included from 14 urological centers in Sweden. Of those, 833 men responded to two consecutive study-specific questionnaires before and three months after surgery (participation rate 86%). The association of intrusive thoughts with three quality-of-life outcomes, i.e. self-assessed quality of life, depressive mood and waking up with anxiety was estimated by prevalence ratios that were calculated, together with a 95% confidence interval, at the same time-point as well as over time. Fisher’s exact-test was used to analyze differences between respondents and non-respondents. Wilcoxon signed-ranks and Cochran-Armitage trend tests were used for analysis of change over time. To validate new questions on intrusive thoughts, written answers to open-ended questions were read and analyzed by qualitative content analysis.
Results
Before surgery, 603 men (73%) reported negative intrusive thoughts about their cancer at some time in the past month and 593 men (59%) reported such thoughts three months after surgery. Comparing those reporting intrusive thoughts at least weekly or once a week before surgery with those who did not, the prevalence ratio (95% confidence interval), three months after surgery, for waking up in the middle of the night with anxiety was 3.9 (2.7 to 5.5), for depressed mood 1.8 (1.6 to 2.1) and for impaired self-assessed quality of life 1.3 (1.2 to 1.5).
Conclusion
The prevalence of negative intrusive thoughts about prostate cancer at the time of surgery associates with studied quality-of-life outcomes three months later.
Trial registration
Current Controlled Trials, ISRCTN06393679
Keywords
- Prostate cancer
- Quality of life
- Intrusive thoughts
- Clinical trial
Introduction
When facing a diagnosis of a life-threatening disease such as prostate cancer, disease-related thoughts could relate to men’s assessment of quality of life. It is possible that the thoughts of men who receive a diagnosis of prostate cancer alternate between healthy reflections and involuntary thoughts. Involuntary thoughts that appear suddenly, repeatedly and that are unwelcome – intrusive thoughts – constitute one component of post-traumatic stress disorder [1] and can be seen as a marker of incomplete cognitive processing of the emotional trauma caused by the cancer diagnosis [2, 3]. Intrusive thoughts have been seen as reflecting an incomplete coping process after a traumatic event [4] and, in theory, a successful coping process is vital if quality of life is to be maintained [5]. In direct relation to a traumatizing event, possibly the frequency and intensity of intrusive thoughts can serve as a measure of the quality of life. Studies performed at one time-point in the disease process or among patients receiving various treatments, suggest that there could be an association between intrusive thoughts and impaired quality of life among men with prostate cancer [4, 6–9], but quality-of-life measurement scales rarely include questions on thoughts [10]. The presence of intrusive thoughts has also been linked to depression, anxiety and sleep disturbance [3, 11]. On the other hand, prospective large-scale studies in well-defined study-groups could reveal if the association between intrusive thoughts and quality-of-life outcomes is sufficiently well based for further utilization in studies or clinical interventions.
Quality of life is often seen as a multi-dimensional construct and measured as such. Long-lasting physical symptoms are frequent after prostate-cancer surgery and appear to diminish the level of quality of life [12]. The development of minimally invasive surgery with the aim to minimize long-lasting physical symptoms such as urinary leakage and erectional dysfunction is ongoing [13], and thus the psychological aspects of prostate-cancer diagnosis may become more evident. By detecting factors that could be modified there could be an opportunity to improve men’s quality of life in the long run. Intrusive thoughts are a psychological symptom that seems modifiable with simple clinical interventions [14–16].
Men participating in our pre-study interviews spontaneously described their thoughts about the disease when asked about their experience after receiving the diagnosis. Based on these interviews and previous studies, we hypothesized that a higher prevalence and more intrusion of thoughts about the prostate-cancer diagnosis and treatment would be associated with higher prevalence of waking up in the middle of the night with anxiety, higher prevalence of depressed mood and with self-reports of impaired quality of life, at the same time-point and longitudinally. The aim of the study was to determine the prevalence of intrusive thoughts about prostate cancer and their association with quality-of-life outcomes before and three months after radical prostatectomy.
Patients and methods
All men diagnosed with prostate cancer scheduled for surgery at 14 urological departments in Sweden were prospectively included to the LAPPRO-trial (ISRCTN06393679) [13, 17]. The trial-secretariat monitored and collected data from consenting participants as a neutral third party [18], applying a detailed process of contacting all patients at follow-up to ascertain a high participation rate. The study design has been described in detail elsewhere [13]. The Regional Ethical Review Board in Gothenburg approved the trial (reference number 277–07).
The present study-cohort consisted of all men included in LAPPRO who underwent prostatectomy between September 1, 2008 and August 31, 2009, and who had answered two consecutive questionnaires, i.e. before and three months after surgery. Participants completed the first questionnaire at admission in the hospital. The second questionnaire was sent to the participants and completed at home. Data was analyzed regardless of surgical technique used. Prior to answering the second questionnaire participants had been informed about the pathology report on the resected prostate.
Validation process
Before the study start, the study variables were defined, developed and validated by a mixed-methods approach. The study-specific questionnaires were based on in-depth interviews with prostate cancer patients, on measures used in research on post-traumatic stress disorder [1] as well as on previous questionnaires developed within our research group [12, 19, 20]. Firstly, transcriptions of the in-depth interviews were analyzed hierarchically and emerging themes were turned into questions. Then, the new questions were integrated with existing measurement-scales in order to make the study-questionnaires suitable for the study population and the time of administration. To ensure validity, specialized nurses, psychologists, clinical scientists and urologists reviewed the questionnaires for their content. After that the questionnaires were validated face-to-face with 15 prostate cancer patients: a researcher was present when each man answered the questionnaires, making sure the questions were measuring what they were meant to and that they applied to the man’s situation at that time. This resulted in further modifications, and in the last preparatory step the questionnaires were tested in a pilot-study of 100 men with consequent revisions before the main study was initiated. This validation procedure has previously been described in detail [13, 21].
Questionnaires
Intrusive thoughts were measured by the question: “How often during the past month have you had negative thoughts about your prostate cancer, suddenly and unintentionally?”. The response categories were: “Never”, “More seldom than once a week”, “At least once a week”, “At least three times a week”, “At least once a day”, “At least three times a day”, “At least seven times a day”. With the aim to validate and get a description of the participants’ thoughts, an open-ended question followed: “Freely describe with a few words your negative thoughts about prostate cancer”. Identical questions were then asked about positive thoughts about prostate cancer. Intrusion was measured by: “How intrusive have you experienced the sudden thoughts about your prostate cancer, positive as well as negative?” with the response categories: “Irrelevant, I have not had any sudden thoughts about prostate cancer”, “Not at all intrusive”, “A little bit intrusive”, “Moderately intrusive”, “Very intrusive”.
Three outcome measures indicating the men’s psychological health were chosen as these have been regarded as valid and sensitive indicators of impaired quality of life in similar study groups [12, 20, 22, 23]. Self-assessed quality of life was measured by: “How would you describe your quality of life during the past month?” answered on a seven-point visual digital scale anchored by “0 – 6”, “0” meaning “No quality of life” and “6” “Best possible quality of life”. The prevalence of depressive mood was assessed by: “Have you been feeling depressive during the past month?” with a seven-point answering scale, “0” meaning “Never” and 6 “All the time”. Waking up with anxiety or worry was detailed by: “Have you in the past month woken up in the night with nervousness, anxiety or feeling of discomfort?” with the response categories: “No”, “Yes, but more seldom than once a week”, “Yes, at least once a week”, “Yes, at least three times a week”, “Yes, every night”.
Statistical methods
The prevalence of thoughts about prostate cancer and their degree of intrusion were seen as the explanatory (independent) variables, while the self-assessed quality of life, depressive mood and waking up with anxiety were the explained (dependent) variables (symptoms of impaired quality of life). In the analysis, the dependent variables were dichotomized as present or not by considering the clinical significance of the symptom in question, as has been done in our previous studies [12, 22, 23]. Hence, the symptom “waking up with worry or anxiety” was defined to be present if the prevalence was “At least once per week”, “depressive mood” if the answers were from “Sometimes” to “All the time” and “impaired self-assessed quality of life” if answers were from “Low” to “Moderate”. Since the questions on intrusive thoughts were newly designed, the associations with the dependent variables were analyzed using two separate cut-off points, “At least once a week” and “At least three times a week”.
The percentages of the participants reporting intrusive thoughts responding within each response category (present/not present) of the dependent variables were calculated and the prevalence ratio is the quotient of those two percentages. We report prevalence ratios together with 95% confidence intervals. Differences between respondents and non-respondents, i.e. those answering only one questionnaire out of two, were analyzed with Fisher’s exact-test. Changes in the prevalence of thoughts between the two time-points were analyzed with Wilcoxon matched pairs-signed test and trends with The Cochran-Armitage trend test. The statistical analyses were performed in SAS 9.2 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC). Patients not responding to a question were not included in the analyses of that specific variable. The written answers to each open-ended question were transcribed into Microsoft® Word and then pasted into an Excel® file. The first author read answers from 200 men with the aim to understand and validate the respondents’ use of the phenomenon intrusive thoughts as stated in the study questionnaires. The methodology of qualitative content analysis was set as ground and the text analyzed hierarchically. First, common themes in the answers were identified and then inductively coded into response categories that described different contents of the written answers [24].
Results
Characteristics of participants (n = 833) undergoing surgery for prostate cancer between September 1, 2008 and August 31, 2009
Characteristics | Number | Percent |
|---|---|---|
Non-participants in the present cohort, out of 971 eligible | 138 | 14.1 |
Not returning any questionnaire | 46 | 4.6 |
Not returning questionnaire before surgery | 72 | 7.4 |
Not returning questionnaire 3 months after surgery | 20 | 2.1 |
Participants in the present cohort (returning two questionnaires) | 833 | 85.9 |
Age quartiles (mean 62.6; SD = 6.2) | ||
41–59 years | 230 | 27.6 |
60–77 years | 603 | 72.4 |
Mean number of days before surgery, first questionnaire (median 6; SD = 27.8) | 11 | |
Mean number of days after surgery, second questionnaire (median 91; SD = 22.8) | 93 | |
Level of education | ||
Primary school | 160 | 19.2 |
Secondary school, 3 years | 238 | 28.6 |
Upper secondary school | 106 | 12.7 |
College/University | 317 | 38.1 |
Other | 8 | 1.0 |
Not indicated | 4 | 0.5 |
Marital status | ||
Married or living with partner | 698 | 83.8 |
Living alone, but has partner | 64 | 7.7 |
Living alone, no partner | 66 | 7.9 |
Not indicated | 5 | 0.6 |
Widowera | 22 | 2.6 |
Employment status before surgery | ||
Employed | 463 | 55.6 |
Unemployed | 4 | 0.5 |
Retired | 298 | 35.7 |
On short or long-term sick leave | 38 | 4.6 |
Other | 22 | 2.7 |
Not indicated | 8 | 0.9 |
Residence | ||
Rural | 118 | 14.2 |
Village or town | 281 | 33.7 |
City (population > 500,000) | 425 | 51.0 |
Abroad (not in Sweden) | 5 | 0.6 |
Use of anti-depressants | 36 | 4.3 |
Bodily pain, at least once a week or more | 161 | 19.3 |
Intercurrent illnesses, one or more (yes) | 417 | 50.1 |
Clinical stage, rectal palpation before surgery | ||
T1 | 450 | 54.0 |
T2/T3 | 332 | 39.9 |
Not indicated | 56 | 16.9 |
Results from 833 men asked about intrusive thoughts about prostate cancer or its treatment and symptoms of quality of life before and 3 months after surgery for prostate cancer
Questions and response categories | Before surgery | 3 months after surgery |
|---|---|---|
How often in the past month have you had negative thoughts about your prostate cancer, suddenly and unintentionally? | Frequency (%) | Frequency (%) |
Never | 226 (27) | 338 (41) |
Less than once a week | 299 (36) | 304 (37) |
At least once a week | 127 (15) | 105 (13) |
At least three times a week | 71 (9) | 46 (6) |
At least once a day | 63 (8) | 30 (4) |
At least three times a day | 32 (4) | 6 (1) |
At least seven times a day | 11 (1) | 2 (0) |
Not indicated | 4 (00) | 2 (0) |
How often in the past month have you had positive thoughts about your prostate cancer, suddenly and unintentionally? | ||
Never | 493 (59) | 375 (45) |
Less than once a week | 130 (16) | 183 (22) |
At least once a week | 94 (11) | 126 (15) |
At least three times a week | 54 (7) | 79 (10) |
At least once a day | 38 (5) | 47 (6) |
At least three times a day | 11 (1) | 9 (1) |
At least seven times a day | 2 (0) | 6 (1) |
Not indicated | 11 (1) | 8 (1) |
How intrusive have you experienced the sudden thoughts, positive as well as negative, about your prostate cancer? | ||
Not relevant, did not have any | 190 (23) | 242 (29) |
Not intrusive at all | 210 (25) | 318 (38) |
A little bit intrusive | 256 (31) | 182 (22) |
Moderately intrusive | 112 (14) | 70 (8) |
Very intrusive | 60 (7.) | 15 (2) |
Not indicated | 5 (1) | 6 (1) |
How would you describe your quality of life during the past month? | ||
No quality of life = 0 | 1 (0) | 1 (0) |
1 | 15 (2) | 8 (1) |
2 | 37 (4) | 46 (6) |
3 | 107 (13) | 133 (16) |
4 | 215 (26) | 261 (31) |
5 | 299 (36) | 269 (32) |
Best possible quality of life = 6 | 157 (19) | 113 (14) |
Not indicated | 2 (0) | 2 (0) |
Have you, sometime during night, woken up with nervousness, anxiety or feeling of discomfort during the past month? | ||
No | 431 (52) | 552 (66) |
Yes, but more seldom than once a week | 169 (20) | 153 (18) |
Yes, at least once a week | 111 (13) | 67 (8) |
Yes, at least three times a week | 82 (10) | 41 (5) |
Yes, every night | 35 (4) | 20 (2) |
Not indicated | 5 (1) | 0 (0) |
Have you been feeling depressive during the past month? | ||
Never = 0 | 135 (16) | 236 (28) |
1 | 220 (26) | 225 (27) |
2 | 156 (19) | 131 (16) |
3 | 131 (16) | 103 (12) |
4 | 119 (14) | 87 (10) |
5 | 59 (7) | 45 (5) |
All the time = 6 | 9 (1) | 5 (1) |
Not indicated | 4 (1) | 1 (0) |
Prevalence ratios with corresponding 95% confidence interval (CI) for prevalence and intrusion of thoughts about prostate cancer before surgery by symptoms of quality of life before and after prostatectomy among 833 men
Before surgery | Quality-of-life symptoms c | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Before surgery | 3 months after surgery | |||||
Waking up with worry or anxiety | Depressive mood | Self-assessed quality of life | Waking up with worry or anxiety | Depressive mood | Self-assessed quality of life | |
≥ 1 per week | Sometimes to all the time | Low to moderate | ≥ 1 per week | Sometimes to all the time | Low to moderate | |
Negative thoughts ≥ 1 per week | 157 (52%) | 245 (81%) | 189 (62%) | 87 (29%) | 188 (62%) | 195 (64%) |
Negative thoughts < 1 per week | 69 (13%) | 227 (43%) | 184 (35%) | 39 (7%) | 180 (34%) | 250 (48%) |
Prevalence ratio (95% CI) a | 4.0 (3.1-5.1) | 1.9 (1.7-2.1) | 1.8 (1.5-2.0) | 3.9 (2.7-5.5) | 1.8 (1.6-2.1) | 1.3 (1.2-1.5) |
Negative thoughts ≥ 3 per week | 103 (59%) | 146 (83%) | 115 (65%) | 57 (32%) | 111 (63%) | 109 (62%) |
Negative thoughts < 3 per week | 123 (19%) | 326 (50%) | 258 (40%) | 69 (11%) | 257 (39%) | 336 (52%) |
Prevalence ratio (95% CI) a | 3.1 (2.5-3.8) | 1.7 (1.5-1.8) | 1.6 (1.4-1.9) | 3.0 (2.2-4.1) | 1.6 (1.4-1.8) | 1.2 (1.0-1.4) |
Positive thoughts ≥ 1 per week | 69 (35%) | 127 (64%) | 79 (40%) | 41 (21%) | 99 (50%) | 101 (51%) |
Positive thoughts < 1 per week | 155 (25%) | 342 (55%) | 292 (47%) | 85 (14%) | 267 (43%) | 341 (55%) |
Prevalence ratio (95% CI) a | 1.4 (1.1-1.8) | 1.2 (1.0-1.3) | 0.8 (0.7-1.0) | 1.5 (1.1-2.1) | 1.3 (1.0-1.8) | 0.9 (0.8-1.1) |
A little bit intrusive or more b | 191 (45%) | 324 (76%) | 251 (59%) | 99 (23%) | 236 (55%) | 255 (60%) |
Not at all intrusive b | 19 (9%) | 86 (41%) | 64 (30%) | 13 (6%) | 74 (36%) | 108 (51%) |
Prevalence ratio (95% CI) a | 5.0 (3.2-7.7) | 1.9 (1.6-2.2) | 1.9 (1.5-2.4) | 3.7 (2.1-6.5) | 1.6 (1.3-1.9) | 1.2 (1.0-1.4) |
The percentage of men within each response category of negative intrusive thoughts: (a) reporting quality of life 0–4 on the scale from 0 to 6; (b) waking up in the middle of the night with worry or anxiety at least once a week; (c) reporting the prevalence of depressive mood 2–6 on a scale from 0 to 6. Within each category the first bar represents both measures before surgery; the second negative intrusive thoughts before surgery and the outcome after surgery, respectively; the third bar shows both measures after surgery.
Response categories of the themes repeatedly occurring in men’s expressions of positive and negative thoughts about prostate cancer before surgery based on a qualitative content analysis of written responses to open-ended questions
Freely describe your positive thoughts about prostate cancer | ||
|---|---|---|
Response categories according to content analysis | Subject themes in responses | Examples of written expression |
Existential | • Positive change of life | “I can be positive to the fact that I know. The truth is easier than the lie, self-illusion. The hope for a continued meaningful life exists.” |
• Enjoy the present | “A new experience that I can learn from… about myself or others and the terms of life. Maybe I will enjoy life and others and myself even better. Live healthier – avoid stress.” | |
• Overcome | ||
Relief | • Not spread (advanced) | “… that it was detected at an early stage and is not aggressive.” |
• Found in time | ||
• Finally some results | ||
Support | • Family and friends | “There are many who are praying for me. Have got so much encouraging response from those around me.” |
• Other’s experience | “Four of my colleagues have had it and recovered.” | |
• Good information | ||
Surgical care | • Symptom relief | “That I will be fine and will not need to go up and pee three times per night.” |
• Cure of cancer | “After surgery it will be cured.” | |
• Regaining health | ||
• Faith in surgeon | ||
• Faith in surgery | ||
Freely describe your negative thoughts about prostate cancer | ||
Response categories according to content analysis | Subject themes in responses | Examples of written expression |
Existential | • Quality of life | “Why me?” |
• Death | “Why does this happen to me? Me who is always so careful? What has made the cancer grow?” | |
• The future | “The fear that it will end with me dying and leave the family with the grief.” | |
• Health | ||
Emotional | • Fright | “Worried about insufficiencies, loneliness, fragility, impotence, to be regarded as unpleasant.” |
• Anger | ||
• Worry | ||
• Anxiety | ||
• Uncertainty | ||
Preparedness | • Relative affected | “My brother had a tough ride” |
• Sneaky disease | “My father died of it at the same age as I am now.” | |
• “Cancer” | “… don’t really understand why and how it has appeared.” | |
• Incomprehensible | ||
• Premature | ||
Mistrust | • Fail to be cured | “Occasionally, even a routine operation fails…” |
• Disbelief | “.. I think that the doctor is just comforting me when he is saying I will be cured.” | |
• Pessimistic information | ||
• Treatment choice | ||
Discussion
The hypothesized association of the studied phenomena. Suitable moments for psychological interventions are proposed. The question marks indicate possible confounding effects.
That the men in our study who reported negative intrusive thoughts had more depressive mood and woke up during night with anxiety more often than men who did not report such thoughts is similar to the few comparable study-findings. In a cross-sectional study of 130 British men with prostate cancer at different stages and under different treatment regimens, half of the studied men reported a high level of anxiety symptoms and 18 out of those reported significantly more intrusive thoughts than non-anxious patients [25]. In addition, Roberts and colleagues, who studied 89 men 7 to 120 days after the initial treatment, mostly surgery, for localized prostate cancer, reported a correlation between lower prevalence of intrusive thoughts and better mental as well as physical functioning [7]. A similar correlation was also found in a cross-sectional study of Australian cancer outpatients (41% men) about two years after their diagnosis [26]. As our study addresses the relationships both with cross-sectional design as well as longitudinally, it confirms the impact of intrusive thoughts on quality of life that previously published studies had indicated.
A prospective association between men’s intrusive thoughts and psychological distress was found by Macefield and colleagues during prostate-specific antigen (PSA) testing and the subsequent biopsy [27]. They found that intrusive thoughts about the specific event in the testing process was associated with reporting anxiety before biopsy, but also after receiving negative biopsy results, although general distress declined after such results as compared to before biopsy. On the other hand, no association with depressive mood was found [27]. Negative intrusive thoughts could therefore be seen as a sensitive symptom relating to anxiety and depressive mood in distressing circumstances during the prostate-cancer trajectory, such as before surgery, but these symptoms do not necessarily overlap. Negative intrusive thoughts could in this manner be a clinically relevant phenomenon. The prospective relationship between reporting intrusive thoughts prior to surgery and symptoms of impaired quality of life three months later gives reason to examine if an intervention at the time of surgery might prevent the negative intrusive thoughts from becoming persistent, and if men’s quality of life could possibly be improved by such measures.
Our one-question measures can be considered as a strength for the study. The principle of “one question – one phenomenon” that our questionnaires follow strives for a clear definition of concepts. Single questions on psychological distress and quality of life have appeared to have similar sensitivity as multi-item measurement-scales [28–30]. Additionally, applying self-assessed measures was an attempt to avoid discrepancy resulting from researcher-assessed measurements [31]. Another strength of this study is the prospective design with consecutive registration of men from a homogenous population in a real-life situation during one calendar year in a, by and large, population-based setting. This, as well as the participants being generally healthy, with clinically localized cancer and restricted to surgical treatment, limits selection-induced problems. Further, we employ clinical epidemiological methods as transferred to this field by the hierarchical step-model [21] aiming at identifying and meeting possible problems in study design, data collection and interpretation of results. Attempting to minimize possible measurement errors, we first analyzed the narratives of men having experiences comparable to the proposed study group. Then, we designed questions based on their wordings and validated them in an analogous population as well as in the questionnaires with open-ended questions. The statistical associations obtained are unlikely to be explained by other confounding factors, non-participation or measurement errors. There are some limitations to the study. Firstly, the two study-questionnaires were answered by 86% of the eligible men; we do not know if the association between occurrence of intrusive thoughts and the symptoms of impaired quality of life differs among the 14% of men not participating. Secondly, the generalizability of the results to countries other than Sweden may be compromised by cultural-specific reactions to the prostate cancer diagnosis. Thirdly, the study variables were assessed with one-question measures, which may explain why our levels of intrusive thoughts differed from those reported by others. Mehnert and colleagues’ study of 511 ambulatory prostate-cancer survivors, two weeks to 141 months after their prostatectomy, revealed that 15% reported one or more intrusive symptoms (i.e. thoughts, dreams, memories) during the last month [6], which is about two thirds of the prevalence we found after surgery. A single question, despite being conceptually clear, may give a higher degree of noise than when items are summarized to form a latent variable such as for intrusive thoughts. This noise may influence prevalence figures as compared to alternative ways of asking but tend on average to dilute the effect measures for the associations between occurrence of intrusive thoughts and quality-of-life symptoms. Thus, the noise introduced by our use of single questions probably does not explain the associations we observed.
In this study, including 833 men scheduled for prostate-cancer surgery, we found that negative intrusive thoughts were associated with reporting depressive mood, waking up during night with anxiety and impaired self-assessed quality of life. This finding raises questions about other factors related to health or care possibly influencing the occurrence of negative intrusive thoughts among prostate-cancer patients and thereby having a role in the reaction after receiving such a diagnosis. Reports of severe psychological distress after the diagnosis of prostate cancer [32–35] emphasize the importance of identifying harmful and persisting reactions after receiving such news. Inspired by these results and from other cancer patients [14–16, 36] health-care professionals could consider designing further studies and interventions for men with prostate cancer regarding the impact of negative intrusive thoughts on quality of life.
Authors’ information
Eva Haglind: Principal investigator of the LAPPRO trial.
Gunnar Steineck: Deputy principal investigator of the LAPPRO trial.
Declarations
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the participants in the LAPPRO trial, the members of the steering committee, the investigators at the participating hospitals, and the personnel at the trial secretariat for their provision of study material and administrative support.
Further acknowledgements to the Swedish Cancer Society (CAN2008/922, CAN2009/1099, CAN2010/593), Region Västra Götaland, Sahlgrenska University Hospital (VGR 27551, 79291, 152231; ALF grants 11573, 138751 and 146201, HTA – VGR grant 6011 agreement concerning research and education of doctors), Swedish Research Council, Mrs Mary von Sydow Foundation and Anna and Edvin Berger foundation, all non-profit organizations, which supported the LAPPRO trial financially.
Authors’ Affiliations
References
- Horowitz M, Wilner N, Alvarez W: Impact of event scale: a measure of subjective stress. Psychosomatic Med 1979, 41: 209–218.View ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Roberts KJ, Lepore SJ, Helgeson V: Social-cognitive correlates of adjustment to prostate cancer. Psycho Oncol 2006, 15: 183–192. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pon.934 10.1002/pon.934View ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Watkins ER: Constructive and unconstructive repetitive thought. Psychol Bull 2008, 134: 163–206.PubMed CentralPubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Lepore SJ, Helgeson VS: Social constraints, intrusive thoughts, and mental health after prostate cancer. J Soc Clin Psychol 1998, 17: 89–106. 10.1521/jscp.1998.17.1.89View ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Folkman S, Greer S: Promoting psychological well-being in the face of serious illness: when theory, research and practice inform each other. Psycho Oncol 2000, 9: 11–19. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/%28SICI%291099–1611%28200001/02%299:1%3C11::AID-PON424%3E3.0.CO;2-Z/abstract 10.1002/(SICI)1099-1611(200001/02)9:1<11::AID-PON424>3.0.CO;2-ZView ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Mehnert A, Lehmann C, Graefen M, Huland H, Koch U: Depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder and health-related quality of life and its association with social support in ambulatory prostate cancer patients. European J Cancer Care 2010, 19: 736–745. 10.1111/j.1365-2354.2009.01117.xView ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Roberts KJ, Lepore SJ, Helgeson V: Social-cognitive correlates of adjustment to prostate cancer. Psycho Oncol 2006, 15: 183–192. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2610315/ 10.1002/pon.934View ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Bisson JI, Chubb HL, Bennett S, Mason M, Jones D, Kynaston H: The prevalence and predictors of psychological distress in patients with early localized prostate cancer. BJU Int 2002, 90: 56–61. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1464–410X.2002.02806.x/full 10.1046/j.1464-410X.2002.02806.xPubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Agustsdottir S, Kristinsdottir A, Jonsdottir K, Larusdottir SO, Smari J, Valdimarsdottir HB: The impact of dispositional emotional expressivity and social constraints on distress among prostate cancer patients in Iceland. British J Health Psychol 2010, 15: 51–61. 10.1348/135910709X426148View ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Bowling A: Measuring health. A review of quality of life measurement scales. 3rd edition. Maidenhead: Open University Press; 2005.Google Scholar
- Taylor TR, Huntley ED, Makambi K, Sween J, Adams-Campbell LL, Frederick W, Mellman TA: Understanding sleep disturbances in African-American breast cancer survivors: a pilot study. Psycho Oncol 2011. Jun 5. [Epub ahead of print] http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pon.2000/abstract Google Scholar
- Steineck G, Helgesen F, Adolfsson J, Dickman PW, Johansson JE, Norlen BJ, Holmberg L: Quality of life after radical prostatectomy or watchful waiting. N Engl J Med 2002, 347: 790–796. http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa021483 10.1056/NEJMoa021483PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Thorsteinsdottir T, Stranne J, Carlsson S, Anderberg B, Bjorholt I, Damber J-E, Hugosson J, Wilderang U, Wiklund P, Steineck G, Haglind E: LAPPRO: a prospective multicentre comparative study of robot-assisted laparoscopic and retropubic radical prostatectomy for prostate cancer. Scandinavian J Urol Nephrol 2011, 45: 102–112. http://informahealthcare.com/doi/abs/10.3109/00365599.2010.532506 10.3109/00365599.2010.532506View ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Rosenberg HJ, Rosenberg SD, Ernstoff MS, Wolford GL, Amdur RJ, Elshamy MR, Bauer-Wu SM, Ahles TA, Pennebaker JW: Expressive disclosure and health outcomes in a prostate cancer population. Int J Psychiatry Med 2002, 32: 37–53. 10.2190/AGPF-VB1G-U82E-AE8CPubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Morgan NP, Graves KD, Poggi EA, Cheson BD: Implementing an expressive writing study in a cancer clinic. Oncol 2008, 13: 196–204. http://theoncologist.alphamedpress.org/content/13/2/196.long 10.1634/theoncologist.2007-0147View ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Antoni MH, Wimberly SR, Lechner SC, Kazi A, Sifre T, Urcuyo KR, Phillips K, Smith RG, Petronis VM, Guellati S, et al.: Reduction of cancer-specific thought intrusions and anxiety symptoms with a stress management intervention among women undergoing treatment for breast cancer. Am J Psychiatry 2006, 163: 1791–1797. 10.1176/appi.ajp.163.10.1791PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Current controlled trials. http://www.controlled-trials.com/ISRCTN06393679
- Mansson A, Henningsohn L, Steineck G, Mansson W: Neutral third party versus treating institution for evaluating quality of life after radical cystectomy. Eur Urol 2004, 46: 195–199. 10.1016/j.eururo.2004.04.010PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Johansson E, Bill-Axelson A, Holmberg L, Onelov E, Johansson JE, Steineck G: Time, symptom burden, androgen deprivation, and self-assessed quality of life after radical prostatectomy or watchful waiting: the randomized scandinavian prostate cancer group study number 4 (SPCG-4) clinical trial. European Urol 2009, 55: 422–430. 10.1016/j.eururo.2008.08.054View ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Hopfgarten T, Adolfsson J, Henningsohn L, Onelöv E, Steineck G: The choice between a therapy-induced long-term symptom and shortened survival due to prostate cancer. European Urol 2006, 50: 280–289. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0302283805008626 10.1016/j.eururo.2005.12.038View ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Steineck G, Hunt H, Adolfsson J: A hierarchical step-model for causation of bias-evaluating cancer treatment with epidemiological methods. Acta Oncologica 2006, 45: 421–429. http://informahealthcare.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02841860600649293 10.1080/02841860600649293PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Steineck G, Bergmark K, Henningsohn L, Al-Abany M, Dickman PW, Helgason A: Symptom documentation in cancer survivors as a basis for therapy modifications. Acta Oncologica 2002, 41: 244–252. 10.1080/02841860260088782PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Onelov E, Steineck G, Nyberg U, Hauksdottir A, Kreicbergs U, Henningsohn L, Bergmark K, Valdimarsdottir U: Measuring anxiety and depression in the oncology setting using visual-digital scales. Acta Oncol (Stockholm, Sweden) 2007, 46: 810–816. 10.1080/02841860601156124View ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Krippendorff K: Content analysis: an introduction to its methodology. 2nd edition. Thousand Oaks: Sage; 2004.Google Scholar
- Whitaker KL, Brewin CR, Watson M: Intrusive cognitions and anxiety in cancer patients. J psychosomatic Res 2008, 64: 509–517. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022399908000494 10.1016/j.jpsychores.2008.02.009View ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Dunn J, Occhipinti S, Campbell A, Ferguson M, Chambers SK: Benefit finding after cancer. J Health Psychol 2011, 16: 169–177. 10.1177/1359105310371555PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Macefield RC, Metcalfe C, Lane JA, Donovan JL, Avery KNL, Blazeby JM, Down L, Neal DE, Hamdy FC, Vedhara K: Impact of prostate cancer testing: an evaluation of the emotional consequences of a negative biopsy result. Br J Cancer 2010, 102: 1335–1340. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.bjc.6605648 10.1038/sj.bjc.6605648PubMed CentralPubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Skoogh J, Ylitalo N, Larsson Omerov P, Hauksdottir A, Nyberg U, Wilderang U, Johansson B, Gatz M, Steineck G: ‘A no means no’--measuring depression using a single-item question versus hospital anxiety and depression scale (HADS-D). Annals Oncol 2010, 21: 1905–1909. 10.1093/annonc/mdq058View ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Littman AJ, White E, Satia JA, Bowen DJ, Kristal AR: Reliability and validity of 2 single-item measures of psychosocial stress. Epidemiol 2006, 17: 398–403. 10.1097/01.ede.0000219721.89552.51View ArticleGoogle Scholar
- DeSalvo KB, Jones TM, Peabody J, McDonald J, Fihn S, Fan V, He J, Muntner P: Health care expenditure prediction with a single item, self-rated health measure. Medical Care 2009, 47: 440–447. 10.1097/MLR.0b013e318190b716PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Litwin MS, Lubeck DP, Henning JM, Carroll PR: Differences in urologist and patient assessments of health related quality of life in men with prostate cancer: results of the CaPSURE database. J Urol 1998, 159: 1988–1992. 10.1016/S0022-5347(01)63222-1PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Bill-Axelson A, Garmo H, Lambe M, Bratt O, Adolfsson J, Nyberg U, Steineck G, Stattin P: Suicide risk in men with prostate-specific antigen-detected early prostate cancer: a nationwide population-based cohort study from PCBaSe Sweden. European Urol 2010, 57: 390–395. 10.1016/j.eururo.2009.10.035View ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Fall K, Fang F, Mucci LA, Ye W, Andrén O, Johansson J-E, Andersson S-O, Sparén P, Klein G, Stampfer M, et al.: Immediate risk for cardiovascular events and suicide following a prostate cancer diagnosis: prospective cohort study. PLoS Med 2009, 6: e1000197. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.1000197 10.1371/journal.pmed.1000197PubMed CentralPubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Fang F, Keating NL, Mucci LA, Adami H-O, Stampfer MJ, Valdimarsdottir U, Fall K: Immediate risk of suicide and cardiovascular death after a prostate cancer diagnosis: cohort study in the United States. J Nat Cancer Institute 2010, 102: 307–314. http://jnci.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2010/02/02/jnci.djp537.full 10.1093/jnci/djp537View ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Bill-Axelson A, Garmo H, Nyberg U, Lambe M, Bratt O, Stattin P, Adolfsson J, Steineck G: Psychiatric treatment in men with prostate cancer–results from a Nation-wide, population-based cohort study from PCBaSe Sweden. Eur J Cancer 2011, 47: 2195–2201. 10.1016/j.ejca.2011.04.022PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Stanton AL, Danoff-Burg S, Sworowski LA, Collins CA, Branstetter AD, Rodriguez-Hanley A, Kirk SB, Austenfeld JL: Randomized, controlled trial of written emotional expression and benefit finding in breast cancer patients. J Clin Oncol 2002, 20: 4160–4168. http://jco.ascopubs.org/content/20/20/4160.abstract 10.1200/JCO.2002.08.521PubMedView ArticleGoogle Scholar
Copyright
This article is published under license to BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
