Changes in health-related quality of life in adolescents and the impact of gender and selected variables: a two-year longitudinal study

Table 4 Adjusted associations between time, gender, sociodemographic factors, pain, self-esteem, self-efficacy, loneliness, stress and changes in health-related quality of life estimated with linear mixed model analyses (N = 211)

	Physical well-being			Psychological well-being
	B	95% CI	p value	B	95% CI	p value
Time
2021	− 1.50	− 2.76 to − 0.26	.018	− 1.22	− 2.11 to − 0.33	.007
2019 (Ref.)	1			1
Gender
Boy	− 0.44	− 2.38 to 1.51	.659	0.70	− 0.54 to 1.94	.268
Girl (Ref.)	1			1
Parental members of the household
Both parents	0.19	− 2.38 to 2.75	.886	− 0.71	− 2.40 to 0.97	.406
Alternates between two parents	0.28	− 2.68 to 3.24	.853	− 0.51	− 2.50 to 1.47	.612
One parent and/or other caregivers (Ref.)	1			1
Parents’ birthplace
Both parents born in Norway	0.45	− 1.65 to 2.54	.675	− 0.14	− 1.48 to 1.19	.834
One or both parents born in another country (Ref.)	1			1
Parents’ work status
Both parents are working	2.41	0.21 to 4.62	.032	1.14	− 0.03 to 2.58	.121
One parent is working (Ref.)	1			1
Pain on average	− 0.49	− 0.90 to − 0.09	.017	− 0.54	− 0.81 to − 0.27	< .001
Self-esteem	1.63	0.08 to 3.16	.038	3.31	2.28 to 4.36	< .001
Self-efficacy	4.80	2.68 to 6.92	< .001	2.31	0.90 to 3.73	.001
Loneliness	− 0.23	− 0.43 to − 0.04	.017	− 0.49	− 0.62 to − − 0.36	< 0.001
Stress	− 1.10	− 1.76 to − .45	0.001	− 1.17	− 1.61 – − .73	< 0.001

	Autonomy and parent relations			Social support and peers
	B	95% CI	p value	B	95% CI	p value
Time
2021	0.67	− 0.53 to 1.86	.272	0.70	− 0.56 to 1.96	.275
2019 (Ref.)	1			1
Gender
Boy	0.35	− 1.41 to 2.11	.695	− 1.76	− 3.42 to − 0.11	.037
Girl (Ref.)	1			1
Parental members of the household
Both parents	0.77	− 1.57 to 3.13	.518	0.44	− 1.83 to 2.73	.701
Alternates between two parents	− 0.11	− 2.86 to 2.64	.936	1.01	− 1.71 to 3.74	.465
One parent and/or other caregivers (Ref.)	1			1
Parents’ birthplace
Both parents born in Norway	1.82	− 0.07 to 3.72	.059	− 0.06	− 1.85 to 1.72	.947
One or both parents born in another country (Ref.)	1			1
Parents’ work status
Both parents are working	1.61	− 0.42 to 3.63	.119	− 1.15	− 3.1 to 0.80	.245
One parent is working (Ref.)	1			1
Pain on average	− 0.45	− 0.82 to − 0.07	.020	− 0.23	− 0.60 to 0.14	.224
Self-esteem	− 0.07	− 1.51 to 1.36	.917	0.11	− 1.31 to 1.5	.876
Self-efficacy	0.79	− 1.17 to 2.76	.427	1.94	0.01 to 3.87	.049
Loneliness	− 0.09	− 0.27 to 0.09	.323	− 0.95	− 1.13 to − 0.77	< .001
Stress	− 2.00	− 2.61 to − 1.39	< .001	− 0.37	98 – .23	.228

	School environment
	B	95% CI	p value
Time
2021	− 1.27	− 2.61 to 0.06	.062
2019 (Ref.)	1
Gender
Boy	− 0.58	− 2.28 to 1.12	.503
Girl (Ref.)	1
Parental members of the household
Both parents	− 1.94	− 4.29 to 0.42	.106
Alternates between two parents	− 1.19	− 4.02 to 1.64	.409
One parent and/or other caregivers (Ref.)	1
Parents’ birthplace
Both parents born in Norway	− 0.03	− 0.87 to 1.80	.972
One or both parents born in another country (Ref.)	1
Parents’ work status
Both parents are working	1.21	− 0.80 to 3.22	.238
One parent is working (Ref.)	1
Pain on average	− 0.68	− 1.07 to − 0.29	.001
Self-esteem	1.10	− 0.38 to 2.58	.146
Self-efficacy	5.73	3.72 to 7.74	< .001
Loneliness	− 0.20	− 0.39 to − 0.02	.030
Stress	− 1.33	− 1.9 to − 0.70	< .001

Linear mixed model analyses were performed separately for each of the five KIDSCREEN-27 subscales as the dependent variables
HRQOL was analyzed with KIDSCREEN-27 subscales. Higher values indicate higher levels of HRQOL
B, Unstandardized coefficient; CI, Confidence interval; HRQOL, Health-related quality of life
p values marked in bold indicate p ≤ .05

ISSN: 1477-7525