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Table 2 The 44 QoLIs meeting threshold CI > 0.05 (CS:1&2) included in the PAC-19QoL and the Mann–Whitney test of difference in Likert means for each item between the study and control populations

From: Design, validation and implementation of the post-acute (long) COVID-19 quality of life (PAC-19QoL) instrument

Domain

Subdomain

QoLI

QoLI Title and Operational Definition

Score

Mean Likert Score

p value1

A

C

Control

Patients

Psychological

Mood

1†

Feelings of low mood (including tearfulness)

3

2

2.25

2.93

0.075

2†

Feelings of anger

3

2

1.88

2.53

0.065

Isolation

3

Feeling of being isolated or lonely due to the effects of long COVID

2

2

1.75

2.53

 < 0.05*

Motivation

4

Motivation to perform regular activities

3

2

2.00

2.73

 < 0.05*

Anxiety

5

Anxious about the future health of myself

3

2

1.94

3.73

 < 0.001*

6

Anxious specifically about falling ill with COVID-19 again

3

2

1.75

3.27

 < 0.05*

7†

Anxious about the future health of my children

3

2

2.13

2.27

0.693

8

Anxious about the future and the quality of my relationships with my family

3

2

2.13

3.07

 < 0.05*

9†

Anxious about the future and my financial situation

3

2

2.50

3.40

0.085

10

Anxious about being dependent on or a burden to relatives or others (such as charities)

3

2

1.56

2.80

 < 0.05*

11

Anxious for no apparent reason

3

2

1.69

3.33

 < 0.05*

12

Anxious about experiencing flashbacks of traumatic events

3

2

1.38

2.87

 < 0.05*

Cognition

13

Ability to process information and organise thoughts

2

2

1.75

3.00

 < 0.001*

14

Ability to focus/concentrate and perform house chores

3

2

1.94

2.87

 < 0.05*

Expression

15

Ability to express oneself verbally

3

2

1.69

3.00

 < 0.001*

Mental exertion

16

Tiredness due to mental exertion

3

2

1.81

3.87

 < 0.001*

17

Mental exertion triggers an immediate headache

3

2

1.38

3.20

 < 0.001*

18

Mental exertion triggers post-exertion malaise

3

2

1.44

3.47

 < 0.001*

Physical

Exertion

19

Exacerbation of chest pain due to physical exertion

3

2

1.06

2.80

 < 0.05*

20

Exacerbation of breathlessness due to physical exertion

3

2

1.50

4.20

 < 0.001*

21

Tiredness due to physical exertion

3

2

1.81

4.07

 < 0.001*

22

Impact in the ability to perform daily chores due to exhaustion

3

2

2.25

3.00

 < 0.05*

23

Impact on the ability to participate in social events due to exhaustion

3

2

2.13

3.40

 < 0.001*

24

Ability to look after spouse or children

3

2

1.63

3.40

 < 0.001*

25

Ability to wash and dress

3

2

1.50

2.40

 < 0.05*

Pain

26†

Pain in joints

3

2

1.81

2.00

0.71

Travel

27

Confidence in ability to drive

3

2

1.69

2.67

 < 0.05*

28†

Ability to travel using public or transport

3

2

2.44

2.93

0.066

Somnolence

29

Feeling sleepy throughout the day

2

2

1.69

3.33

 < 0.001*

Smell/taste

30

Inability to enjoy food due to not being able to smell or taste it

3

2

1.06

2.47

 < 0.05*

31

Inability to enjoy alcohol due to not being able to smell or taste it

3

2

1.06

2.60

 < 0.05*

Breathlessness

32

Effect on the ability to converse due to breathlessness

2

2

1.19

3.20

 < 0.001*

Fine motor

33

Inability to carry out delicate tasks with fingers

2

2

1.19

2.67

 < 0.001*

Libido

34

Interest in sexual intercourse

2

2

1.75

3.53

 < 0.05*

Social

Isolation

35†

Physical isolation from family members due to long COVID

1

2

2.44

3.00

0.278

36

Physical isolation from friends due to long COVID

3

2

2.50

3.60

 < 0.05*

Relationships

37†

Relationship with spouse or partner

3

2

1.75

2.07

0.448

38

Relationship with dependents

3

2

1.63

2.53

 < 0.05*

39

Relations with colleagues and friends

3

2

1.88

3.00

 < 0.05*

40

Exhaustion due to emotional exertion

3

2

1.63

3.87

 < 0.001*

Hobbies

41

Engaging normal hobbies or recreational activities

3

2

2.56

3.53

 < 0.05*

Work

Ability to work

42

Current ability to work versus pre-COVID-19 state

3

2

1.69

4.40

 < 0.001*

43

Impact in career progression due to being ill or on sick leave

3

2

1.94

4.00

 < 0.001*

44†

Loss of income due to inability to work

3

2

2.06

3.00

0.14

  1. 1Mann–Whitney U test p value
  2. †QoLIs with no statistically significant differences between groups
  3. *Statistically significant at 95% confidence interval
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Health and Quality of Life Outcomes

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